Marcus Aurelius, Bronze Emperor-Portrait from the Roman Lugio

the portrait of Emperor Marcus Aurelius from Lugio

„I had an example of a kindly disposition and sweetness of temper from my grandfather Verus.

From what I heard of my father and my memory of him, modesty and manliness.

From my mother, the fear of God, and generosity; and abstention not only from doing ill but even from the very thought of doing it; and furthermore to live the simple life, far removed from the habits of the rich.

From my grandfather's father, to dispense with attendance at public schools, and to enjoy good teachers at home; ...

From my tutor, not to side with the green Jacket or the Blue at the races, or to back the Light-Shield Champion or the Heavy-Shield in the lists; not to shirk toil, and to have few wants and to do my own work, ... ; and to turn a deaf ear to slander.

From Diognetus, not to be taken up with trifles; ... and to become familiar with philosophy ...; and to set my heart on a pallet-bed and a pelt and whatever else tallied with the Greek regimen. ...

From Apollonius, self-reliance and an unequivocal determination not to leave anything to chance; and to look to nothing else even for a moment save Reason alone; ...

From my brother Severus, love of family, love of truth, love of justice ...; and the conception of a state with one law for all, based upon individual equality and freedom of speech, and of a sovranty which prizes above all things the liberty of the subject; ...

From the Gods ... that I was subordinated to a ruler and a father capable of ridding me of all conceit, and of bringing me to recognize that it is possible to live in a Court and yet do without ... pomp; ... and yet not on this account to be more paltry or more remiss in dealing with what the interests of the state require to be done in imperial fashion. " - these are the words of the Roman Emperor, known as Marcus Aurelius, one of the most respected rulers of the greatest empire of the antiquity. He noted these thoughts about his origin, education and on his principles as an emperor in the last decade of his life.

MARCUS AURELIUS Antoninus, in his original name M. Annius Catilius Severus and Marcus Annius Verus was born in Rome in 121 AD as a member of a distinguished family of Hispánián origin. His father was brother of the Emperor's (Antoninus Pius) wife thus he belonged to the close relatives of the imperial family. He was brought up in the court of Hadrian from his early childhood and was given an excellent education which consisted of the fundamental elements of the contemporary knowledge in Greek and Latin (literature, rhetorics and philosophy) and also covered law, natural sciences, musics and painting. As a youth he became a believer of the Stoic philosophy and later emerged as one of its excellent scholars.

Hadrian was followed by Antoninus Pius in 138 who soon adopted Marcus Aurelius establishing him in line of succession. Although he did not refuse the task of managing the state affairs, he went on studying philosophy in his spare time.

He was raised to be an emperor from his youth; and even though he was given to philosophy, to meditation, to contemplation by nature and inclination of his own, he accepted what fate had for him: in 161 AD when Antoninus Pius died he took over the rule on the call of the Senate. He shared power voluntarily with his adopted brother, Lucius Verus (161-169) and from 177 AD with his son and designated successor, Commodus.

One of his aims was to maintain the Stoic morals in ruling the Empire. „See thou be not Caesarified, nor take that dye, for there is the possibility. So keep thyself a simple and good man, uncorrupt, dignified, plain, a friend of justice, god-fearing, gracious, affectionate, manful in doing thy duty. Strive to be always such as Philosophy minded to make thee." - writes in his „Communings with himself.

In reality, however, during his two-decade reign he had to deal with wars in order to defend the Roman Empire. He defeated the revolt in Britannia and after the Parthian wars and wars with the barbarian Quads and Markomanns he fought in a series of campaigns against the barbarians attacking the Pannonian Limes at the Danube from the East. The emperor's column in Rome was erected in memory of these wars.

The „philosopher-emperor" spent the greater part of his reign in military camps, parts of his „Communings" were also written „among the Quadi on the Gran" and at Carnuntum. He died in the camp at Vindobona during the campaign for defense of the border at the Danube too early to complete the pacification of the area.

He was a conscientious, law-abiding emperor, manful in doing his duty. He became the ideal of the good ruler. His life and his reign fell on the period of zenith of the Roman Empire considering its political, economic and cultural achievement. It was no fault of his that the stability of the empire which had been taken for imperturbable seemed to falter in the last years of his reign due to the increase of barbarian attacks and disasters.

Marcus Aurelius, the most admired emperor and stoic philosopher both in the antiquity and in modern times, is best known for his equestrian statue on Capitol Hill and his memorial column in Rome and because of his Communings with himself written in Greek.

This booklet is regarded as one of the most comprehensive collection of moral views and principles of the stoic philosophy although originally it has not been intended for publication. It was written without the author having been eager for the readers' praise. Thus it was possibly unknown until 350 AD and as good as forgotten for the following five and half centuries. It became widely known and popular only in 1559 when it was published as a printed book.

The „Communings" is an aphoristic collection of morals, reflections of personal nature containing the views of Marcus Aurelius about life and death, body and soul or Gods and his fellow-men. The questions dealt with by the Emperor cover the four main virtues of stoic philosophy: modesty, manliness, sobriety and justice but the sound of resignation so characteristic for the 2nd century stoicism also can be heard: „Of the life of man the duration is but a point, its substance streaming away, its perception dim, the fabric of the entire body prone to decay, and the soul a vortex, and fortune incalculable, and fame uncertain. In a word all the things of the body are as a river, and the things of the soul as a dream and a vapour; and life is a warfare and a pilgrim's sojourn, and fame after death is only forgetfulness. " Or: „But a little while and thou shalt be burnt ashes or a few dry bones, and possibly a name, possibly not a name even. And a name is but sound and a far off echo. And all that we prize so highly in our lives is empty and corrupt and paltry, and we but as puppies snapping at each other, as quarelsome children now laughing and anon in tears. "

The Emperor's „Communings with himself were written at least partly in the Pannonian theatre of war, somewhere at the Garam river and in the camp at Carnuntum. They are interwoven with resigned thoughts about the life which is streaming away, the loneliness and tiredness of the soul. These diary-like meditations clearly reveal the character of the philosopher -emperor, for whom the imperial court was seen as a stepmother, and philosophy proved to be real mother of his.

Nevertheless the thoughtful voice of the wise man speaking to us from the „ Communings" belongs to the Emperor never forgetting the dignity and duty of a ruler: „Every hour make up thy mind sturdily as a Roman and a man to do what thou hast in hand with scrupulous and unaffected dignity and love of thy kind and independence and justice; and to give thyself rest from all other impressions. And thou wilt give thyself this, if thou dost execute every act of thy life as though it were thy last.,.". „... let the God that is in thee be lord of a living creature, that is manly, and full of age, and concerned with statecraft, and a Roman, and a ruler, who hath taken his post as one who awaits the signal of recall from life in all readiness, needing no oath nor any man as his voucher...".

Several portraits, bronze or marble representations of Marcus Aurelius survived. The best known of these is the equestrian statue from about 170 AD that was almost miraculously saved until 1538 when Michelangelo erected it on Capitol Hill in Rome.

The portraits were made according to the typical 2nd century standard and followed the Greek conventions in the official style required by the imperial court. The personality of the philosopher-emperor, the stoic scholar and ideal man is reflected authentically by these portraits all of them representing the melancholicly transfigured face.

The stoicism deeply influenced the mentality of the 2nd century Rome, at least that of the learned and wealthy people. According to the Stoa it was unimportant what the sensible world consists of; the very essence of knowledge was to direct man's behavior as long as the earthly life lasts. The conduct became more important than science and the virtues of soul were emphasized. This mentality was also expressed by the imitation of the beard-style of Greek philosophers. This philosopher-beard can be seen on the portraits of emperors from Hadrian onwards.

The characteristic features of 2nd century Roman portrait - sculpture can also be discerned on the Marcus Aurelius representations known so far. The relatively great number of these can be connected with the emperor-cult widely practized in Rome and in the provinces.

The Roman Empire made its subjects to show respect to their rulers in a religious way. The imperial power was expressed by the high position of the emperor as a priest and by the cult established for his own person. This cult enjoyed an increasing veneration among the officially approved cults supported by the state: temples and priests were ordered for its service and the emperor was worshipped as a god already during his lifetime. The subjects expressed their loyalty to the Roman Empire and its ideals by their offering - ceremonies before the statues of the emperor or by the altars of his erected in the offices or in the shrines of military camps.

This cult is mentioned by the biographer of Marcus Aurelius when writing about the emperor's death: „...people of every age, sex, degree and rank in life, gave him all honours given to the gods, but also whosoever failed to keep the Emperor's image in his home, if his fortune were such that he could or should have done so, was deemed guilty of sacrilege. Even to-day, in fine, statues of Marcus Antoninus stand in many a home among the household gods. "

The bronze portrait of Marcus Aurelius which was brought to Pannónia, a province so far away from Rome, can be connected to the cult of the emperor in the military camps. The portrait is kept by the Janus Pannnonius Museum in Pécs. The fact that this precious relic of antique art came to light at the Danube can easily be understood if we refer to the ancient history of the region.

The Pannonian and Celtic tribes of the areas between the Drava and Sava rivers and north from the Drava were conquered by the Romans during Augustus's rule. These areas were annexed to the empire as a new province: Pannónia provincia. The Danube, which is the border of this province, became the border of the Roman Empire: the limes and its defense was organized immediately after the occupation of the area. Military posts, legionary and mostly auxiliary camps were ordered to secure the province.

Camps along the limes were fortified with earthworks and wooden constructions in the 1st century AD. The stone walls came somewhat later, they became general during Hadrian's rule (117-138 AD). The most part of the road along the limes was paved before Hadrian's visiting Pannónia in 124 AD.

Barbarian tribes penetrated into Pannónia from the East in the middle of the 2nd century and they put many camps and settlements on fire. Marcus Aurelius led many punitive military expeditions against them. The series of wars were closed by the emperor Commo-dus (180-192). The reinforcement of the limes, the development of Pannonian towns, the recovery of trade and building activities fall into the reign of Septimius Severus (193-211).

The limes was reorganized, more forts and towers were built because of the new threats from the eastern barbarians during the reigns of the emperors Diocletian and Constantine in the early 4th century.

The Roman LUGIO, an auxiliary camp on the limes along the Danube, was established in the territory of the modern DUNASZEKCSŐ. The Roman fort was built on the top of the highest hill of the loess-area, on the Várhegy (Castle-Hill) immediately on the Danube bank. Due to the successive falls of the bank the eastern half of the camp has already been washed away by the river, leaving only the about 170 m wide western part of it to survive.

The limes road coming from the north skirted the camp on the western side and led into it after a turn from southward.

A military camp at Lugio appears to have been built in the late 1st century AD. It was then when the legions were transferred to the limes on the Danube and more auxiliary camps also were established.

The cohors II Breucorum and part of the legio II ad-iutrix stationed here in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The importance of Lugio is attested by two edicts issued here by Diocletian on 5th November 293 AD. The name of the Roman camp at Dunaszekcső changed from Lugio for Florentia in the Late Roman period. The reason of this alteration is unknown so far.

Forts on the left bank were also built opposite the military camps at the important crossing-places. The counter-fortification of CONTRA FLORENTIAM (at modern Dunafalva) opposite Lugio was built in the Late Roman period. The remains of this fort with two towers can be seen when the Danube is low. The fort of 59 x 85 m size may well have been a military port or landing place. From here started a road that ran towards Dacia crossing the modern Szeged.

  The bronze portrait representing the emperor Marcus Aurelius was found on the Várhegy (Castle-Hill) in the course of construction of a cistern in September 1974. The following archaeological excavations made clear that the sculpture was among the remains of a building of quadrangular shape that belonged to the first building period of the Roman military camp and was destroyed by fire. The small building was built of bricks with a terazzo-floor. The bronze head was found in the place roughly according to the camp shrine and rallying place in the Roman military camp of Lugio. One of the most important buildings of a Roman camp was the shrine where the standards of units and the image of the ruler, the emperor were kept. The statue of the actual emperor was erected here and the troops expressed their loyalty this way or by having a dedication carved into the base of the statue.

  The votive dedications found on the stone-slabs built into the walls of Contra Florentiam are also connected with the emperor-cult. These may well have been taken here as building material from the camp of Lugio. The altars (or bases of statues) were originally erected by the troops stationing in Lugio to the honour of the emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla.

  In the Lugio camp, perhaps in a niche of the shrine was placed the portrait representing Marcus Aurelius that came to light by the above mentioned works in 1974.

  The almost one and a half times bigger than lifesize cast bronze portrait depicts the emperor with a hair- and beard-style characteristic of the Greek philosophers according to the rules of officially approved interpretation. The heavy curls of hair framing the forehead and the curly philosopher-beard, the double furrows on the forehead and below the eyes belong to the principal features of the official portraiture of Marcus Aurelius. On the Lugio portrait the face is slightly asymmetrical.

  The portrait is dominated by kindness, wisdom, humanity and seriousness: this bronze sculpture depicts much more the philosopher than the emperor-differently from the head of the equestrian statue on the Capitol Hill that is otherwise the most strikingly similar one of all the representations known so far.

  The face is melancholicly transfigured and it represents a young man about 30 or 40, yet not tired of struggle, a stoic scholar. The expression of his face is kind and meditative with eyes gazing slightly upwards, into the distance.

  The Lugio (Dunaszekcső) bronze portrait of the emperor was cast with the „lost wax" method; the face must have been patinated in the course of its completing. Judging from the intact edge of the slightly fragmentary neck it can be supposed that it may have been intended for insertion into a statue. The back is roughly worked, which was customary in the case of statues intended for niches.

  This representation of Marcus Aurelius, one of the magnificent masterpieces of Roman portrait-art was completed in the middle or late 2nd century AD. Both the exquisite modelling and the high level of technology of the casting suggest that this almost complete portrait is unlikely to have been made in Pannónia. Hardly any sculptor or bronze-metallurgist having such art and skills may have worked in this area unyielding another bronze sculpture of similar quality from the Roman period.

  The portrait found in Lugio (Dunaszekcső) must have come to its later find-place at the Pannonian limes from a workshop of art either of Italy or of an eastern province of the Roman Empire.

  Among the several Marcus Aurelius representations there were only two bronze ones known previous to the revealing of the Dunaszekcső head. This third bronze representation of Marcus Aurelius can be regarded as one of the most splendid relics of art not only in Pannónia but in the whole Roman Empire as well.

The quotations in the text are from the following editions:

The Communitigs with himself of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Emperor of Rome, together with his speeches and sayings. A revised text and a translation into English by C.R.Haines. The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Univ. Press - London, Heinemann, 1961.

The Scriptores Historiae Augustae. With an English tanslatwn by David Magie, 1. vol. The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard Univ. Press - London, Heinemann 1960.